Man-made fibre, fibre whose chemical composition, structure, and properties are significantly modified during the manufacturing process. Man-made fibres are spun and woven into a huge number of consumer and industrial products, including garments such as shirts, scarves, and hosiery; home furnishings such as upholstery, carpets, and drapes; and industrial parts such as tire cord, flame-proof linings, and drive belts. The chemical compounds from which man-made fibres are produced are known as polymers, a class of compounds characterized by long, chainlike molecules of great size and molecular weight. Many of the polymers that constitute man-made fibres are the same as or similar to compounds that make up plastics, rubbers, adhesives, and surface coatings. Indeed, polymers such as regenerated cellulose, polycaprolactam, and polyethylene terephthalate, which have become familiar household materials under the trade names rayon, nylon, and Dacron (trademark), respectively, are also made into numerous nonfibre products, ranging from cellophane envelope windows to clear plasticsoft-drink bottles. As fibres, these materials are prized for their strength, toughness, resistance to heat and mildew, and ability to hold a pressed form.
Man-made fibres are to be distinguished from natural fibres such as silk, cotton, and wool. Natural fibres also consist of polymers (in this case, biologically produced compounds such as cellulose and protein), but they emerge from the textile manufacturing process in a relatively unaltered state. Some man-made fibres, too, are derived from naturally occurring polymers. For instance, rayon and acetate, two of the first man-made fibres ever to be produced, are made of the same cellulose polymers that make up cotton, hemp, flax, and the structural fibres of wood. In the case of rayon and acetate, however, the cellulose is acquired in a radically altered state (usually from wood-pulp operations) and is further modified in order to be regenerated into practical cellulose-based fibres. Rayon and acetate therefore belong to a group of man-made fibres known as regenerated fibres. Another group of man-made fibres (and by far the larger group) is the synthetic fibres. Synthetic fibres are made of polymers that do not occur naturally but instead are produced entirely in the chemical plant or laboratory, almost always from by-products of petroleum or natural gas. These polymers include nylon and polyethylene terephthalate, mentioned above, but they also include many other compounds such as the acrylics, the polyurethanes, and polypropylene. Synthetic fibres can be mass-produced to almost any set of required properties. Millions of tons are produced every year.
This article reviews the composition, structure, and properties of man-made fibres, both regenerated and synthetic, and then describes the ways in which they are spun, drawn, and textured into useful fibres. For a full understanding of the material from which these fibres are made, it is recommended that the reader begin with the article industrial polymers, chemistry of.
Chemical Composition And Molecular Structure
Linear, branched, and network polymers
One of the features common to all the fibre-forming polymers is a linear structure. As explained in the article industrial polymers, chemistry of, polymers are built up by the joining together, through strong covalent bonds, of smaller molecular units known as monomers. When these monomers are joined end-to-end like links along a chain, a polymer with a simple linear structure is formed. In some polymers shorter chains grow off the long chain at certain intervals, so that a branched structureis formed. In other polymers the branches become numerous and cross-link to other polymer chains, thus forming a network structure. (These three polymer structures are illustrated in Figures 1A, 1B, and 1C of industrial polymers, chemistry of.)
Materials made of linear and branched polymers will hold their shape when cooled, owing to the considerable attraction (known as intermolecular forces, or van der Waals forces) that such large molecules exert upon one another. With the application of heat, however, these materials will soften and eventually become molten, as the molecules, which are not cross-linked by covalent bonds, overcome the intermolecular forces and flow past one another. Linear and branched polymers will also dissolve in suitable solvents. Such behaviour makes linear polymers especially suitable for forming into fibres, which, as is explained below, are usually spun from a molten state or from solution. Few highly branched polymers are suitable for fibres, because they do not crystallize readily and have relatively poor mechanical properties. Network polymers form enormous, complex, chemically bonded structures that do not melt without undergoing chemical decomposition. In addition, while network polymers may soften and swell upon treatment with solvents, they do not readily dissolve. Such properties render most network polymers unsuitable for forming into fibres.
Influence of chemical structure on properties
The most important fibre-forming polymers are shown in Table 1. For details on their composition, properties, and applications, links are provided from the table to entries on the materials. An important requirement of these polymers is that they have melting points which are sufficiently high to make the fibres useful—for instance, so that clothing made from them can be ironed or pressed—but which also fall within a range that permits melt-spinning without decomposition of the polymer. Alternatively, polymers that melt at too high a temperature for practical melt-spinning or polymers that decompose at melt-spinning temperatures may be suitable for fibre forming if they can be dissolved and then spun from solution. The extent to which a polymer possesses these essential properties is often determined by the structure of its repeating units. To illustrate the manner in which these structural units can result in either good or poor fibre-forming properties, several basic polymer structures are discussed below, along with variations in chemical structure that cause variations in fibre-forming properties.
Properties and applications of prominent man-made fibres
| polymer family and type | common names and trade names | deniers (gm/9,000 m) | tensile strength (gm/denier) | elongation at break (%) | initial modulus (gm/denier) |
| Cellulosics | |||||
| Polyamide | |||||
| Aramid | |||||
| Polyester | |||||
| Polyacrylonitrile | |||||
| Polypropylene | |||||
| Polyethylene | |||||
| Polyurethane | |||||
| polymer family and type | apparel and home-furnishing applications | industrial applications | |||
| Cellulosics | |||||
| Polyamide | |||||
| Aramid | |||||
| Polyester | |||||
| Polyacrylonitrile | |||||
| Polypropylene | |||||
| Polyethylene | |||||
| Polyurethane | |||||
| regenerated cellulose | rayon | 2–3 | 2.0–2.1 | 17–20 | — |
| cellulose triacetate | acetate, Arnel | 2–3 | 1.2–1.4 | 25–28 | 35–40 |
| polycaprolactam (textile fibre) | nylon 6 (textile) | 1.5–5 | 4.5–6.8 | 23–43 | 25–35 |
| polyhexamethylene adipamide (textile fibre) | nylon 6,6 (textile) | 1.5–5 | 4.5–6.8 | 23–43 | 25–35 |
| polycaprolactam (industrial fibre) | nylon 6 (industrial) | 1.5–5 | 8.5–9.5 | 12–17 | 33–46 |
| polyhexamethylene adipamide (industrial fibre) | nylon 6,6 (industrial) | 1.5–5 | 8.5–9.5 | 12–17 | 33–46 |
| poly-p-phenylene tereph-thalamide | Kevlar, Twaron, Technora | 1.0–1.5 | 25–30 | 3–6 | 500–1,000 |
| poly-m-phenylene isoph-thalamide | Nomex, Conex | 2–5 | 3–6 | 2–30 | 130–150 |
| polyethylene terephthalate | Dacron, Terylene, Trevira | 1.5–5 | 4.7–6.0 | 35–50 | 25–50 |
| acrylic (>85% acrylonitrile) | Acrilan, Creslan, Courtelle | 2–8 | 2.5–4.5 | 27–48 | 25–63 |
| modacrylic (35–85% acrylonitrile) | Verel, SEF | 2–8 | 2.5–4.5 | 27–48 | 22–56 |
| Herculon, Marvess | 2–10 | 5–9 | 15–30 | 29–45 | |
| regular | 2–10 | 2–4 | 20–40 | — | |
| high-modulus | Dyneema, Spectra | — | 30–35 | 2.7–3.5 | 1,370–2,016 |
| spandex, Lycra | 2.5–20 | 0.6–1.5 | 400–600 | — | |
| regenerated cellulose | area rugs, substitute for cotton in clothing | disposable nonwoven fabrics, tire cord, paper | |||
| cellulose triacetate | suit coat linings | cigarette filters | |||
| polycaprolactam (textile fibre) | hosiery, lingerie, sports garments, soft-sided luggage, upholstery | no significant applications | |||
| polyhexamethylene adipamide (textile fibre) | hosiery, lingerie, sports garments, soft-sided luggage, upholstery | no significant applications | |||
| polycaprolactam (industrial fibre) | no significant applications | tires, ropes, seat belts, parachutes, fishing lines and nets, hoses | |||
| polyhexamethylene adipamide (industrial fibre) | no significant applications | tires, ropes, seat belts, parachutes, fishing lines and nets, hoses | |||
| poly-p-phenylene tereph-thalamide | no significant applications | radial tire belts, bulletproof vests, reinforcement for boat hulls and aircraft panels | |||
| poly-m-phenylene isoph-thalamide | no significant applications | filter bags for hot stack gases, flame-resistant clothing | |||
| polyethylene terephthalate | permanent-press clothing, fibrefill insulation, carpets | sewing thread, seat belts, tire yarns, nonwoven fabrics | |||
| acrylic (>85% acrylonitrile) | substitute for wool—e.g., in sweaters, hosiery, blankets | filters, battery separators, substitute for asbestos in cement | |||
| modacrylic (35–85% acrylonitrile) | flame-resistant clothing—e.g., artificial fur, children’s sleepwear | flame-resistant awnings, tents, boat covers | |||
| upholstery, carpets, carpet backing | ropes, nets, disposable nonwoven fabrics | ||||
| regular | no significant applications | cordage, webbing | |||
| high-modulus | no significant applications | reinforcement for boat hulls, bulletproof vests | |||
| stretch fabrics—e.g., for sportswear, swimsuits | no significant applications |
Polyolefins
Many polymers are derived from the olefins, a family of hydrocarbon compounds—that is, compounds containing hydrogen (H) and carbon (C)—which are produced from the refining of petroleum and natural gas. An olefin contains one double bond between two carbon atoms. The general chemical formula can be represented as CH2=CHR, with R representing any of several possible atoms or groups of atoms. As the repeating unit of a polymer, the compound has the following chemical structure:
Here the brackets signify that the compound is a repeating unit, and nrepresents the number of times the unit is repeated in the polymer.
When R in the above structure represents a methyl group (CH3), the polymer obtained is polypropylene. Polypropylene is a material of moderately high melting temperature (176 °C, or 349 °F) that can be melt-spun into fibres useful for several types of clothing, upholstery, carpets, and nonwoven fabrics. When R is hydrogen (H), the polymer is polyethylene, a relatively low-melting material (137 °C, or 279 °F) that finds use as a fibre in industrial applications—e.g., nonwoven fabrics—but not in most household applications.
Still another variation is found when R represents a cyano, or nitrile, group (C≡N), containing carbon and nitrogen linked by a triple bond. In this case the polymer obtained is polyacrylonitrile, an acrylic that does not melt without decomposition and therefore must be solution-spun into fibres used in clothing, drapes, and carpets.
It can be observed from the structural variations noted above that the methyl and cyano groups in polypropylene and polyacrylonitrile raise melting points and alter solubility. At the same time, however, they are known to have a detrimental effect on tensile properties. For example, although fibres made from polypropylene can be very strong, their tensile strength is only about one-fourth that of the high-modulus polyethylene fibres.
Polyesters and polyamides
As noted in industrial polymers, chemistry of: Step-growth polymerization, one important route to the formation of polymers is the reaction of dicarboxylic acids with alcohols to form esters (containing CO―O groups) and with amines to form amides (containing CO―NH groups). The difference in properties produced by reacting with alcohols as opposed to amines can be illustrated by two structures.
In the first structure (above), when X represents oxygen (O), the polyester polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is obtained. Having a melting point of 265 °C (509 °F), PET can be melt-spun into very practical and cheap fibres that are widely employed in clothing, furnishings, carpets, and tire cord under such trademarked names as Dacron and Terylene. On the other hand, when X is an amine group (NH), a polyamide with a melting point greater than 400 °C (750 °F) is formed. This compound, polyethylene terephthalamide, can only be spun from solution, using costly solvents; therefore, it is not made into fibres.
In the second structure (above), when X represents oxygen, a very low-melting polyester called polyhexamethylene adipate, unsuitable for fibres, is obtained. When X represents an amine group, however, a useful polyamide, polyhexamethylene adipamide (nylon 6,6), is obtained. With a melting point of 265 °C (509 °F), nylon 6,6 can be melt-spun readily into fibres employed in apparel, carpets, and tire cord.
From the above illustrations, it is clear that the amide (CO―NH) groups produce much higher melting points than do the ester (CO―O) groups, even when the overall structures of the polymers are otherwise identical. The reason for this is that the CO―NH combinations are capable of a type of chemical bonding known as a hydrogen bond. Hydrogen bonds can produce bonds between polymer chains that are similar to the covalently bonded cross-links found in network polymers. They are not covalent bonds, however, and do not form true cross-links. In particular, the strength of the hydrogen bonds diminishes with the application of heat or solvent, allowing the polymers to be spun from the melt or from solution.
Very high melting points and oxidatively stable bonds can be produced when the CO―NH groups of the polyamide structures illustrated above are combined with aromatic hydrocarbons. When these stiff, ring-shaped molecules take the place of the more flexible CH2 groups, very high-melting aromatic polyamides, or aramids, are obtained. Better known by the trademarks Kevlar and Nomex, aramids are made into flame-resistant clothing, bulletproof vests, tire cord, and stiffening reinforcement for composite materials used in large structures such as boat hulls and aircraft parts. The structures of these two compounds are shown below.
Cellulose-based polymers
Cellulose, a complex carbohydrate that is the basic structural component of the plant cell wall, is the most abundant polymer on earth. The basic structure of cellulose and its derivatives is shown below.
In unaltered native cellulose, X represents hydrogen, forming a number of pendant hydroxyl (OH) groups. Hydroxyl groups, like amides, are capable of forming hydrogen bonds. Partly as a result of such bonds, native cellulose behaves much like a cross-linked polymer, melting only with chemical decomposition—and therefore precluding melt-spinning into fibres. On the other hand, cellulose can be spun from solution when the OH groups are converted to other groups. For instance, rayon fibres can be formed by converting the OH groups to xanthate groups (e.g., O―CS―S―Na; an organic salt containing oxygen, carbon, sulfur, and sodium) in a basic solution prior to spinning and then converting the xanthate groups back to OH groups by spinning the dissolved compound into an acidic bath. Substitution of an acetyl group (O―CO―CH3) for the OH group leads to a material that can be spun from a simple solvent such as acetone. These fibres are known as cellulose acetate, or simply acetate.
Additives
In order to achieve certain desirable fibre properties that cannot be obtained by polymers alone or to overcome certain deficiencies of polymers, various additives are mixed into polymer melts or solutions prior to the spinning of fibres. Some of the more common additives are heat and light stabilizers (especially important for nylon), flame retardants, and delustrants such as titanium dioxide to dull the natural sheen of man-made fibre. In some cases dyes or pigments may be added to the melt or solution prior to the spinning of the fibre. Ordinarily, fibres are coloured after spinning by dyes dissolved in baths of boiling water. The water serves to carry the dyes into the fibres, where acidic dyes bind to basic sites and basic dyes bind to acidic sites. However, some fibres cannot be penetrated by water after they have been dried in the spinning process. In the case of polyesters, organic compounds such as benzophenone are used to carry the dyes into the fibres under pressure. In the case of acrylic fibres high in polyacrylonitrile, dyes are applied during the spinning process. At this time the freshly precipitated fibres, prior to the drying and collapse of their gel structure, still contain some water and solvent and are therefore open to the entry of basic dyes that bind to acidic sites on the polymers.
Pigments, which are insoluble colorants, can also be added to polymer solutions or melts prior to spinning. Pigments are often added to modacrylics (acrylics low in polyacrylonitrile and modified by other monomers) because the fibres, which are very sensitive to light, fade or yellow even after dyeing. The addition of pigments to the spinning solution prevents fading and yellowing of the fibres to some degree. The fibres are especially useful for outdoor fabrics such as awnings and boat coverings. Polypropylene is another material that is very hydrophobic (water-repelling); moreover, the polymer has no acidic or basic sites for the binding of dyestuffs. Consequently, pigments are added to polypropylene melts prior to spinning.
